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In order to overcome the limitations and negative perceptions often addressed to coach education programs, the sports coaching literature has offered important contributions for its improvement. Thus, through analyzing scientific articles published between 2009 and 2015, this study aimed to identify the teaching strategies adopted in small-scale, large-scale, and university-based programs. An automatic search for articles was conducted in the following databases: PUBMED, SCOPUS, Web of Science, PyscNET, and SPORTDiscus.
Manual search was conducted in two non-indexed peer-reviewed journals. Afterwards, 731 articles were found and 16 were selected by applying the established criteria. The results indicated that most of the studies selected took place in a university-based context. In relation to the teaching strategies adopted, we verified a common intent to engage coaches in group discussions and reflection activities. Based on the articles analyzed, we suggest that the teaching strategies adopted in coach education programs indicate a trend towards learner-centered approaches (coach-centered), meeting the international guidelines for the improvement and effectiveness of these endeavors.Keywords: Sports coaching; Education; Professional development; Teaching. IntroductionWith the constant expansion of sport in the 21st century, the need for a high quality orientation for sports practice has increased the importance of the sports coach.
In this sense, coach education programs (CEPs) have helped supported the development and certification of sports coaches, and the search for improvements in these endeavors has been prevalent in the scientific literature consulted.CEPs offered worldwide have been classified into three categories: small-scale, large-scale, and university-based. Small-scale programs are defined as an education endeavor that takes place in localized interventions, with focus on specific topics and groups. CEPs identified as large-scale are usually characterized by being developed by a National Government Body (NGB) and offering different levels of certification with pre-established contents for each level. University-based programs differ from the aforementioned in that they are offered at an undergraduate or postgraduate level, as well as being linked to a broader educational system.
In addition, these programs normally last longer and focus primarily on developing general content and skills for the coaching practice.Considering the increased interest on the development of CEPs, Trudel et al. Carried out the first literature review on scientific publications regarding this topic.
In reviewing the research published between 1998 and 2007, Trudel et al. Selected and analyzed 14 studies, which were classified into small-scale, large-scale, and university-based programs. Although most studies took place in large-scale programs, the findings highlighted the scarcity of studies about the long-term effectiveness of CEPs, as well as the important role of sports organizations in promoting activities for coaches through non-formal and informal learning situations. Afterwards, other literature reviews were conducted in CEPs regarding: the kind of materials published in this topic; its effectiveness in developing coaches’ interpersonal knowledge; and a system for classifying these endeavors.Even though research studies have tried to create a broader understanding of CEPs and to provide support for its improvement, sports coaches still perceive their informal learning experiences (i.e. Outside the educational context) with more meaning in their development. The preferred learning situations normally mentioned are: interaction with peers, observing other coaches, and “on the job” experiences.
Instead of adapting these situations to CEPs, the highly prescriptive teaching strategies often adopted have led coaches to a passive role in the learning process; therefore, only making them responsible for memorizing the content selected and delivered by the instructor.In an effort to overcome the limitations aforementioned, studies have indicated the importance of moving beyond an instructor-centered environment and adopting more coach centeredness approaches. Considering the complexity of sports coaching and the evolution of access to information on the XXI century, competencies as decision making, creativity, and innovation have been claimed to be developed on CEPs. For example, in Europe, the European Network of Sport Science, Education & Employment published a document in 2007 reviewing the qualification principles for the whole continent, which led to changes on the design and epistemological principles of CEPs in countries as UK and Portugal. Likewise in North America, the National Coaching Certification Program (NCCP) of Canada was a large-scale CEP pioneer in reorganizing their curriculum from a content to a competency-based approach in 2005. However, it is still unknown which teaching strategies have been used in such programs whether in small-scale, large-scale or university-based contexts. Therefore, considering the new trends for CEPs around the world in the last years, and in order to contribute to the previous reviews of Trudel et al., Rynne et al., Langan et al., and Lefebvre et al., this study reviewed the research published between 2009 and 2015 in order to identify the teaching strategies adopted in small-scale, large-scale, and university-based CEPs.
MethodsAlthough this study only followed some of the procedures indicated by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, from a methodological perspective we conducted it with further rigor and transparency throughout the identification and selection of articles process when compared to regular research reviews. Thus, the search for articles took place in July 2016, in which three phases took place: Phase I: Defining the search strategies; Phase II: Screening articles; Phase III: Data extraction and analysis.
Martinez, the Garment Worker Center organizer who represented Ulloa, has handled more than a hundred wage claims over the last three years. Ulloa may not have had a shot at restitution at all, if not for a 1995 raid in El Monte that turned up 72 Thai workers sewing clothes in slave-like conditions.That investigation uncovered a makeshift factory in boarded-up homes, surrounded by barbed-wire fences and guards to keep the workers from escaping. Kav laoved workers rights for caregivers 2018. “We can’t be responsible for what we can’t control.”Darrell Steinberg, the mayor of Sacramento who authored the bill when he was a member of the Assembly, conceded that it may not have been “as much of an advance as it could have been.” But he said that with contentious measures like this one “you make compromises to get them through.”The law now allows workers to claim back wages from their direct employers, and from manufacturers who contracted with those factories. The case resulted in seven prison sentences for the factory operators, and a bill known now as the anti-sweatshop law.The first draft of the law made any business that buys clothes from a manufacturer liable for workers’ back wages if they were underpaid to sew garments with that company’s label. But retailers lobbied against that proposal and persuaded lawmakers to take stores out of the equation.“I made it clear to the legislators that we could not in any shape or form accept joint liability,” said Bill Dombrowski, the CEO of the California Retailers Assn., who lobbied the Legislature.
Phase I: Defining the search strategiesThe automatic search for articles was performed using the following databases: PUBMED, SCOPUS, Web of Science, PyscNET, and SPORTDiscus. The searching equations used were: Coach Education AND Certification, Coach Education AND Program, Coach Education AND Formal Training, Coach Education AND Curriculum, Coach Education AND Learning, Coach Development AND Certification, Coach Development AND Program, Coach Development AND Formal Training, Coach Development AND Curriculum, and Coach Development AND Learning.The manual search in peer-reviewed journals not indexed in databases included those whose scope is the publication of original articles on CEPs.
Based on this criterion, two journals were selected to be screened: International Sports Coaching Journal and Sports Coaching Review. We highlight that for both automatic and manual search we only considered original articles published from 2009 to 2015 in the English language in peer-reviewed journals. In this phase, 731 studies were found. Phase II: Screening articlesAfter removing duplicates, the 391 studies left were screened through a two-step process. Firstly, two researchers individually examined the studies by reading the titles and abstracts based on the following exclusion criteria: (1) Theoretical essay/Position paper; (2) Article out of the research topic; (3) Books, book chapters, conference abstracts or other types of studies that are not an original article. When the researchers indicated discordance regarding the articles’ selection, a third researcher was asked to contribute to the final decision.
Through applying the exclusion criteria, 318 studies were excluded and 73 were selected for the next step.In the second step, the following exclusion criteria were adopted for the studies selected for full-text screening: (1) Article out of the research topic; (2) Article focusing on the coaches’ perception and not the intervention performed; (3) Article with teaching strategies developed with no link to a CEP. Thus, 57 studies were excluded and 16 were selected to take part in this research. The flowchart in represents the process of selecting studies. Primary findingsThrough reviewing the sports coaching literature published between 2009 and 2015, this study aimed to identify the teaching strategies adopted in small-scale, large-scale, and university-based CEPs, as well as the main findings obtained.
After organizing the studies selected into the context they were performed, four were classified as small-scale -, another four were classified as large-scale, -, and eight were classified as university-based. Contrary to the study of Trudel et al. And Rynne et al., the large inclusion of CEPs in the university context suggests a pursuit of developing coaches through a broader educational system, which is already consolidated and recognized as a method of formal training for other traditional professions. This may be an indication of a professionalization process for the sports coaching, in which the university can be one of the means to contribute to this recognition.Although Trudel et al. Claimed for CEPs to be suitable to a voluntary aspect of the coaching activity, it seems that the current research has pointed to another direction. Therefore, instead of finding an expansion of the small-scale programs, which would be more convenient for voluntary coaches, we suggest that this search for professional recognition of coaches has led to new perspectives in the design of certification programs.
As an example, we point out the use of complex theories throughout the programs, a longer time in the educational process, and the importance of internal learning situations, present in the three contexts investigated,. However, we also mention that only searching for articles on peer-reviewed journals might have limited our access to other types of published materials, which could have added some valuable information, especially regarding to small-scale CEPs.In relation to the teaching strategies adopted in the studies selected for this review, we verified a common intention to engage coaches in reflection activities through small group discussions -, large group discussions, online reflective journals, and problem-based learning,. In sum, regardless of the context, it seems that the teaching strategies implemented are mainly grounded either in a social or an individual nature, which means that coaches have been exposed to opportunities of interaction with others and reflection. Therefore, it appears that coaches’ preferred learning situations aforementioned -, have been adapted and included in CEPs as teaching strategies.
In addition, coaches have become the protagonist of their learning, assuming an active role in the education process. These aspects suggest a shift of tendency, from directives (where the instructor is the center of the process), to learner-centered approaches; as suggested previously by other research in the sports coaching field,.For presenting the results obtained from phase III of the studies’ selection, we adopted the same criteria used by Trudel et al.; therefore, the studies were grouped according to the context where the study took place, namely small-scale, large-scale, and university-based CEPs. Large-scale coach educationAuthors / YearTeaching StrategyImplementation ProceduresData CollectionGeneral FindingsMontelpare et al.LargeGroup DiscussionPeer Interaction- Eight-week course using a facilitated online approach. ConclusionThe findings of this study identified the tendency of each context to point out certain teaching strategies to be adopted. In small-scale programs, for example, there is a search for meeting the specific needs of sports club coaches through reflection and discussions among the participants. Due to the need to reach a higher number of coaches, large-scale programs presented a trend toward the use of technological resources and online platforms, together with the promotion of discussion among participants. On the other hand, university-based programs have often adopted problem-based teaching strategies and a frequent reflection of the coaches.The evidences suggest some signs of a continuum into a paradigm shift in all contexts, which is characterized by the constant use of teaching strategies that promote the engagement of coaches through group discussions and group or individual reflection.
These new directions in teaching strategies adopted by CEPs may be justified by the increased professional recognition of the sports coach, as well as the recurrent technological advances of the 21st century, given the wide access to information, mainly through the internet. Therefore, this reinforces the need for CEPs to adopt teaching strategies that promote not only specific knowledge, but also the development of learning skills that contribute to a continuous and independent learning process.However, the literature on sports coaching is still searching for methods of investigation and evaluation to prove through longitudinal empirical data the development of different types of knowledge, as well as the impact of CEPs on the coaching practice. Identifying such aspects will help support researchers, coach developers, and sports organizations to adopt appropriate teaching strategies according to the context in which the program takes place. In addition, in order to improve and have in-depth knowledge about the positive and negative aspects of the teaching strategies adopted in CEPs, we suggest the conduction of literature review studies to investigate coaches’ perception of their participation in coach education programs.
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